Universitas Islam Negeri Raden Fatah Palembang

The presence of the Dutch colonial government in its colonies, in line with the definition of colonialism as the conquest of a territory belonging to another nation, involved not only territorial control but also dominion over the entire region, encompassing its economic, political, and socio-cultural aspects (Loomba, 2016). The Dutch colonial conquest extended from Southeast Asia to Australia, comprising both large and small islands collectively known as the Dutch East Indies (Stroomberg, 2018). One of the Dutch colonial conquests was the Residency of Palembang, previously known as the Sultanate of Palembang before the Dutch colonization. The Residency of Palembang was divided into three districts: Lower Palembang, Upper Palembang, and Ogan and Komering Ulu (Hanafiah, 1998; Panji & Suriana, 2014; Sari, Syawaludin, & Khudin, 2020) To control its colonies and achieve its desired objectives, the Dutch colonial government implemented a policy. The policy was designed as efforts or actions to influence a particular system (Anggara, 2018). One of the policies implemented by the Dutch colonial government was the cultuurstelsel policy, also known as the forced cultivation system or Tanam Paksa. Since the implementation of the cultuurstelsel (forced cultivation) starting in 1830, the Dutch East Indies government reaped substantial benefits. The Dutch exports surged from 13 million guilders in 1830 to 74 million guilders in 1840. Between 1840 and 1880, an average of 18 million guilders flowed into the Dutch government's treasury each year. The cultuurstelsel system greatly benefited the Dutch colonial government. Conversely, the indigenous people suffered significantly. This drew criticism from various quarters in the Netherlands, and one notable critique of this inhumane policy came from Multatuli (former Assistant Resident in Lebak). He expressed his condemnation through his work "Max Havelaar," first published in 1860. This book contained critiques of the forced cultivation system in Lebak, Banten (Fitri, 2022). Since then, the cultuurstelsel came under attack from various quarters in the Netherlands. Humanitarian groups raised their voices passionately for the sake of humanity, while private business interests criticized the policy due to their desire to invest in the Dutch East Indies. Business groups pressed for the cessation of the cultuurstelsel and the adoption of liberal economic principles, allowing them to benefit from the wealth of the colonies. Their criticisms proved effective, and liberal policies began to be implemented in 1870, even though the cultuurstelsel persisted for a few more years. By the end of the 19th century, thirty years after the implementation of liberal policies, the expansion of plantations and the surge in exports from the Dutch East Indies led to a decline in income per capita in the colonial territories. This downturn prompted strong criticism from Conrad Theodore van Deventer, a legal expert and member of the High Council of the Liberal Democratic Party. Deventer's protest was conveyed through his writing titled “Een Eereschuld” in the Dutch journal de Gids in 1899 (Aprilani & Hayari, 2018). The term "Eereschuld" essentially refers to a debt that, for the sake of honor, must be repaid, even though it cannot be legally enforced. Deventer's writing explained with concrete figures how the prosperity of the Netherlands was derived from its colonial territories in the Dutch East Indies, while those territories themselves remained poor and underdeveloped. Therefore, the Netherlands had a "moral debt" to repay by implementing a new policy prioritizing welfare programs funded by the government. In 1901, Queen Wilhelmina announced a new political policy known as the "Ethical Policy." This policy was based on three fundamental principles: education (edukasi), irrigation (irigasi), and population resettlement (migration). (Ricklefs, 2007). However, after thirty years of implementing this Ethical Policy, particularly in the field of education, very few students managed to complete their education at the secondary level. The literacy rate was only slightly above six percent (6.4%) of the population. This situation was a result of uneven access to education among the entire population, which was structured based on racial and social status, such as for the European, Arab, Indian, Chinese, and indigenous population (Suwignyo, 2019). The motivation behind education during that time was primarily driven by economic interests to secure educated and cost-effective labor for employment in Dutch plantations and office positions (Saputra, 2022). Schools were segregated based on race and social status, with separate institutions for European, Arab, Indian, Chinese, and locals (Fakhriansyah & Patoni, 2019). Despite the limited success of the Ethical Policy in the field of education, it cannot be denied that a small educated elite emerged as a result of this policy. It was this educated elite that introduced new ideas to society, marking the beginning of nationalist movements in the 20th century (Susilo & Isbandiyah, 2018). The political changes provided an opportunity for native intellectuals to establish nationalist movements. During this period of awakening, written works in newspapers, magazines, and books were already circulating in society (Fachrurozi, 2019). According to research conducted by Agus Sulton (2015) entitled Sastra “Bacaan Liar” Harapan Menuju Kemerdekaan, the works produced by movement leaders at that time can be categorized as political readings. Consequently, the Dutch East Indies government began to intensify efforts to restrict writings from the nationalist movement that criticized colonial rule. To control these works, the Dutch East Indies government established a body or institution for their publication. This institution was the "Commissie voor de Inlandsche School en Volkslectuur" or Public Reading Commission (Komisi Bacaan Rakyat), established on September 14, 1908, based on the Regulation of the Department of Education and Religious Affairs No. 1 (Siregar, Mardanus, & Anwari, 1997). This body/institution later transformed into Balai Poestaka. Apart from the aforementioned objectives, the establishment of Balai Poestaka initially stemmed from the concern of a low-ranking official who observed that teachers and students needed reading materials to enhance their literacy skills (Pendit, 2018). Meanwhile, Fitzpatrick (2008) more specifically said that Balai Poestaka was an instrument of colonialism and a symbol for the 'cultivation' of colonial people through reading and literacy. Balai Poestaka according to research conducted by Sulistya Putri, Dewi Yuliati, Dhanang Respati Puguh entitled “Kebijakan Balai Poestaka sebagai Pemerintah Kolonial Belanda Badan Penerbitan pada tahun 1917-1942” (Balai Poestaka Policy as the Dutch Colonial Government Publishing Agency in 1917-1942) functioned as a censorship agency for literary works in ensuring the social and political stability of the colonial government in the Dutch East Indies (Putri, Yuliati, & Respati Puguh, 2021). Another study entitled“Sejarah Penerbitan Buku Sampai Terbentuknya Balai Poestaka pada Masa Pergerakan Nasional Indonesia” (History of Book Publishing until the Establishment of Balai Poestaka during the Indonesian National Movement) revealed that before the establishment of Balai Poestaka as the Dutch official publishing, there were already publishers and printing presses owned or run by Peranakan Chinese and Indo-Europeans in Java. (Andriyanto, 2022). Seeing the interesting development of literacy during that time, this study aims to reveal whether the existence of Balai Poestaka had a role in developing literacy in the Palembang Residency community.

This research employs a historical research method. The historical method is aimed to reconstruct past human experiences. The steps involved include heuristic, verification, interpretation, and historiography (Wasino & Hartatik, 2018). The data sources utilized in this study comprise primary and secondary sources. Historical sources can be categorized as primary sources when the source personally witnesses, hears or experiences the events documented in the source. Historical sources can also be classified as primary if the source has not been processed or altered in any way, and its content remains untouched (Herlina, 2020). According to Tjandrasasmita, the use of manuscripts as historical sources can be done in two ways. First, historians can directly access the original manuscripts. Second, they can access manuscripts that have been studied by philologists (Uka Tjandrasasmita, 2011). This research utilizes both approaches. The primary sources utilized in this research consist of written materials, specifically newspapers published in Palembang between 1901 and 1956. These primary sources are available at the National Library of Republic of Indonesia (PNRI), such as Teradjoe (1919), Tjahaja Palembang (1925), Pewarta (1934), Soewara (1936). The newspapers from the collection of the PNRI have been converted into microfilm. Meanwhile, secondary sources for this research include books about Balai Poestaka. The data analysis technique begins with the collection of sources (heuristic) by reading bibliographies in previous studies that discuss the same topic. This is followed by tracing the existence of these historical sources. Additionally, searches are conducted through literary artifacts produced during the Dutch East Indies colonial period, such as newspapers. The collection of newspaper sources is carried out by interviewing the librarians in the rare newspaper service on the 8th floor of the National Library of Indonesia (PNRI). This led to the identification of a list of microfilm newspapers and magazines published during the Dutch East Indies period. From this list, 22 newspapers published in Palembang were identified, with 7 in Dutch and 15 in Indonesian. Subsequently, the research involved reading the 15 newspapers in Indonesian. The search for secondary sources was conducted through the PNRI catalog. (https://opac.perpusnas.go.id/).

Balai Poestaka was established by the Dutch East Indies government because the Komisi Bacaan Rakyat (Public Reading Commission), formed by the government in 1908, was considered successful in fulfilling its duties. The increasing number of publications necessitated more human resources. Therefore, the Dutch government deemed it necessary to develop this institution into a separate entity with a new name. Based on this notion, the government issued Act No. 63 on September 22, 1917, regarding the establishment of the Kantoor voor de Volkslectuur. This institution was later named Balai Poestaka and was led by Douwe Adolf Rinkes. According to Andries Hans Teeuw, also known as A. Teeuw (1921-2012), a Dutch expert in Indonesian literature and culture, initially, the main purpose of Balai Poestaka was to collect and publish abundant traditional folk literature found in the Dutch East Indies. Furthermore, the bureau encouraged the creation of original modern works by Indonesian authors, provided translations, and promoted a variety of Western literary works (Redaksi, 2014). According to Teeuw's study, the publications of Balai Poestaka during the Dutch East Indies era can be categorized into three types: publications on traditional folk literature, translated works from Western literature, and original works by Indonesian authors. Through the research conducted, publications from Balai Poestaka that fall under traditional folk literature include as follows. Table 1. Traditional folk literatures publications by Balai Poestaka No Title Publication Year 1 Hikayat Hang Tuah 2 Hikajat tjerita maharadja Rawana 3 Inhoud van de Hikayat Hamzah 4 Hikajat Pelandoek Djinaka 5 Hikajat Pandji Semirang (salinan dari kitab asalnja jang tersimpan di Lembaga Kebudajaan Indonesia) 1924 1934 1953 Table 2. Translations of Western folk literatures No Title Author Translator Publication Year 1 Tom Sawyer anak Amerika Mark Twain 189 Abdoel Moeis 1928 2 Anak radja dan anak miskin Mark Twain B. Dj Rasad 1922 3 Parawan di djalan sepi Arthur Conan Doyle R. Bratakoesoema 1930 Besides having local folk literatures, Balai Poestaka also produced translations of Western literature translated into the Malay language. These books have been digitized by the National Library in form of electronic sources, CD-ROMs. The book can be accessed at the National Library at the South Merdeka street on the 8th floor, and it is available for reading only at that location. The next translation of Arthur Conan Doyle's work, Parawan di djalan sepi (Virgin on a quiet street) translated into Sundanese by R. Bratakoesoema Weltevreden in 1930. The book can also be accessed at the National Library at the South Merdeka street on the 8th floor. Table 3. Original works by Indonesian authors No Titles Author Publication Year 1 Azab dan Sengsara Merari Siregar 1920 2 Binasa kerna Gadis Priangan Merari Siregar 1931 3 Cinta dan Hawa Nafsu Merari Siregar 4 Sitti Nurbaya Marah Roesli 1922 5 La Hami Marah Roesli 1924 6 Anak dan Kemenakan Marah Roesli 1956 7 Tanah Air Muhammad Yamin 1922 8 Indonesia, Tumpah Darahku Muhammad Yamin 1928 9 Kalau Dewi Tara Sudah Berkata Muhammad Yamin 10 Ken Arok dan Ken Dedes Muhammad Yamin 1934 11 Apa Dayaku karena Aku Seorang Perempuan Nur Sutan Iskandar 1923 12 Cinta yang Membawa Maut Nur Sutan Iskandar 1926 13 Salah Pilih Nur Sutan Iskandar 1928 14 Karena Mentua Nur Sutan Iskandar 1932 15 Tuba Dibalas dengan Susu Nur Sutan Iskandar 1933 16 Hulubalang Raja Nur Sutan Iskandar 1934 17 Katak Hendak Menjadi Lembu Nur Sutan Iskandar 1935 18 Tak Disangka Tulis Sutan Sati 1923 19 Sengsara Membawa Nikmat Tulis Sutan Sati 1928 20 Tak Membalas Guna Tulis Sutan Sati 1932 21 Memutuskan Pertalian Tulis Sutan Sati 1932 22 Darah Muda Djamaluddin Adinegoro 1927 23 Asmara Jaya Djamaluddin Adinegoro 1928 24 Pertemuan Abas Sutan Pamuntjak & Nan Sati 1927 25 Salah Asuhan Abdul Muis 1928 26 Pertemuan Djodoh Abdul Muis 1933 27 Menebus Dosa Aman Datuk Madjoindo 1932 28 Si Cebol Rindukan Bulan Aman Datuk Madjoindo 1934 29 Sampaikan Salamku Kepadanya Aman Datuk Madjoindo 1935 Through this publisher, modern original works by Indonesian authors were also born, known as modern Indonesian novels. The first modern Indonesian novel was Azab dan Sengsara (Torment and Suffer) by Merari Siregar in 1920. This work marks the beginning of Modern Indonesian literature, known as the 'Angkatan 20' or more famously as the ‘Angkatan Balai Poestaka.’ The books published by Balai Poestaka covered a variety of topics and languages. In addition to educational books and folk tales, Balai Poestaka also published various books on health, agriculture, technology, arts, and skills. The publications of Balai Poestaka were issued in Malay and various regional languages. Based on the second catalog of Balai Poestaka (1917), in its first year of establishment, Balai Poestaka had published books in Malay (31) and Javanese, with Latin and Arabic scripts (101), Sundanese (67), Madurese (22), Batak (4), Acehnese (1), Bugis (1), and Makassarese (1) (Siregar et al., 1997). During the Dutch East Indies government era, Balai Poestaka also endeavored to promote the development of the indigenous culture. This effort is evident in the large number of books in regional languages and books about regional cultures published throughout the years. K. A. H. Hidding, as the last chief of Balai Poestaka before the Japanese occupation, emphasized by stating that: Balai Poestaka made efforts to stimulate the cultural development of the indigenous people and enhance their education. This was done not only through new discoveries but also by preserving everything that held meaning for the indigenous culture. If deemed necessary, anything meaningful was given a new lease of life. For Balai Poestaka, culture was not something isolated; because culture is always linked to the past and the future. In this context, Balai Poestaka collected and reprinted the ancient literature, which was a cultural heritage of certain communities (Siregar, Mardanus, & Anwari, 1997). One effort to stimulate the development of indigenous culture is to publish books about culture so that they can be read by every generation. Like a book Tatatjara by Ki Padmasoesastra written in Bahasa and Java, published by Balai Poestaka in 1914, describing the Javanese customs and traditions. Initially, the intentions of the Dutch East Indies government were viewed with suspicion by the public. However, as indigenous intellectuals started writing for Balai Poestaka, the suspicions gradually faded away. During that time, Balai Poestaka not only published books but also released periodic magazines such as the monthly magazine Sri Poestaka, first published in 1918. This illustrated magazine initially contained social and technical knowledge, and later its scope expanded to attract a broader readership. Subsequently, it featured popular scientific articles, literature, and ethnography. Serial stories published in the magazine were often republished as books. Then, in 1923, the weekly magazine Majalah Pandji Poestaka was launched. This magazine featured articles on various current issues with various illustrations. Through this medium, news from around the world were informed. The public obtained various information about farming, education, sports, commentary on developments both abroad and domestically, and various new regulations and decrees issued by the government. Additionally, detailed reports on sessions of the Majelis Rendah orVolksraad (Lower House) were frequently presented so that the public knows why and how regulations are implemented. In the field of literature, Majalah Pandji Poestaka opened a special section titled Menoejoe Kesoesasteraan Baroe (Towards New Literature), focusing on articles about the development of literature in the Dutch East Indies. This magazine also presented reports on the market and serialized stories. With its rich content, the readership of this magazine quickly increased, leading to its publication twice a week in 1926. By 1941, the circulation of this magazine had reached 7,000 copies, a substantial number at that time. The next weekly magazine that was published in 1923 is Kedjawen (a magazine in Javanese), also published twice a week since 1928. In 1924, the weekly magazine in Sundanese, Parahiangan, was also published. The content of both magazines was tailored to the taste and intellectual development of each community group that constituted the target audience for these magazines. In 1941, the circulation of Kedjawen reached 5000 copies, while Parahiangan only reached 2500 copies

The study conclude that Balai Poestaka made several efforts to promote literacy in the community. First, they established Taman Poestaka, a library specifically for indigenous people, opened in native schools under the supervision of school teachers. Second, they opened the "Depot van Leermiddelen" and small trucks as mobile bookstores, reaching villages in Java, Sumatera, Sulawesi, and Kalimantan. Third, at least three times a year, Balai Poestaka distributed 100,000 catalogs, each 32 pages thick, to promote their published books. In addition, Balai Poestaka sold its books at affordable prices to the public. Book prices were printed on the covers to prevent resale at higher prices. The extensive publication of books reflects the serious involvement of the Komisi Bacaan Rakyat (Public Reading Commission) or Balai Poestaka in the development of community literacy. In the Palembang Residency, the sale of Balai Poestaka's books was handled by the Raden Hasan bin Raden M. Saleh’s store, which advertised books in local newspapers circulating in South Sumatra. Furthermore, in Palembang, in 1934, there was also a book rental named Bibliotheek Ketjerdasan.